This section explains various procedures and offers some advice on their use. Although some information is given on how various techniques can be integrated into program activities, this section is not intended to be used independently. It can serve as a reference and an adjunct to good training practices. The skills and experience required to safely manage a climbing program are far more extensive than can be covered in a manual such as this.
No technique should be used in a critical situation before it has been studied and practiced. Such practice requires taking rope and carabiner in hand, going through the techniques, and setting up simulations in a vertical environment. All procedures should be practiced with a realistic load on the rope. The way in which a hitch holds and releases under load can be significantly different from the way it looks on paper, or how it behaves without weight on the rope.
The addition of a realistic practice load can be accomplished with inanimate objects or people on independent back up belays. The weight used should be at least one hundred and thirty to two hundred pounds. The use of such weight forces honest practice. Without a true body weight load it is often possible to take unrealistic shortcuts.
It is the intention of this work to offer the simplest, most straight forward techniques and most easily universalized techniques. At first glance, this may not at appear to be the case. It is true that if nothing ever went wrong in institutional climbing, simpler methods could be employed across the board. Following a simplistic approach to simplification, many institutions have used utilized the most bare bones techniques, naively hoping that everything would go smoothly. But of course, things do go wrong.
The techniques offered in this work proactively address the most common problems that arise in institutional climbing. Taken from the larger perspective that includes both the smooth and the not so smooth outcome, the techniques offered have obvious advantages over those without built in safety features. Initially simpler techniques often require a complex of additional techniques to deal with problem situations. For example, the use of load releasing hitches backed up by a figure eight on a bight appears more complicated than just tying a load off onto a figure eight on a bight. But, if the load locks down on the figure eight on a bight, either a haul system (complicated) or a knife (dangerous) is required to return to an active belay/lower. Similarly, the load releasing hitch is simpler without the figure eight on the bight back-up, but the whole situation becomes more complicated if the load, a person, is dropped because the load releasing hitch slipped and there was no back up.
Some of the techniques offered are a product of an evolution of practices towards systems that answer several different needs: ease of instructor use; ease of use by instructors of differing experience levels; reliability; consistency throughout the body of techniques; etc. Many of the techniques are traditional and have been in use for decades. Some are more recent developments. Nothing is included that has not been thoroughly tested and put to use in the field.
Again, no technique should be used before becoming thoroughly familiarized with that technique. Know how systems work and what can go wrong with them. Only with practice can you develop a feel for how much rope is required for certain procedures, how much slippage to expect from certain wraps or hitches, how tight some hitches or wraps must be, etc.. All techniques are subject to errors of misuse, inappropriate use, careless use, etc..
BASIC PRINCIPLES
This is not an exhaustive list, but at a minimum, institutional climbing programs should always adhere to the following:
A) There should always be at least a 10 to 1 safety margin in the ratio of the maximum strength of a system to the expected load.
If we use 200 lb. as our participant weight (on the conservative side) the system should not contain any components which are rated to a maximum strength (the load at which they normally fail) of less than 2000 lb.. Maximum strength is different from working load which includes an accommodation for a safety margin. (Note: The working load of some devices is based on a safety margin which is less than the conservative institutional safety margin. Most climbing equipment is not rated with a working load.) Given that most 11mm ropes are rated to around 5000 lb., and most institutionally appropriate carabiners to at least 2500 lb., it would seem that the safety margin would be relatively easy to maintain. Unfortunately, violations of the safety margin can arise in many situations: Sometimes instructors try out creative activities such as putting more than one person on a single rope, anchor or belay for the sake of a cooperation exercise; Occasionally sub-institutional strength equipment-intended for alpine, other sports or construction use finds it's way into your systems; Equipment can be used improperly (as simple as misalleging a carabiner or as unintuitive as setting up a safety line too tightly); Systems can be inadvertently shock loaded during a hard fall top roping, a big bounce in a rappel, if a litter or participant who is being lowered becomes stuck and then freed with slack in the rope, or if one point in a self equalizing anchor fails; Hauling loads with mechanical advantages or excessive person-power can easily generate forces which exceed safety ratios; Rigging and loading high lines and other horizontal or sloped arrays can result in disastrous anchor or line failure if appropriate precautions are not followed; etc..
All of the potential forces involved in the rigging and operation of a system should be considered. If there are questions or unknowns, the activity should not be attempted. It is easy to duplicate something like a high line (tyrolean traverse) in appearance, but understanding the forces involved and how to keep them within the safety margin is more complicated.
B)A participant in a dangerous location should always be attached to one of the following: a rope that is controlled with an active belay; a rope that is tied off in some fashion, but which is backed up with a figure eight on a bight clipped into an anchor; or to a tether or prusiks that are attached to a static safety line system.
Each system should be secure according to the following standards:
Any system that is not an active belay should be backed up with a figure eight on a bight.
If the system is static, as in the case of a safety line or tether, that system should in no case rely upon potentially insecure knots or anchors (load releasing hitches without back-ups, clove hitches, single prusiks, etc.).
A participant should never be secured by a single prusik. The rope, loaded with the student's weight (or the student climbing a fixed line) can be held with a single prusik, but a real belay or figure eight on a bight clipped into the anchor with a figure eight on a bight must back the prusik up.
Rappelling, rope climbing with jumars, other mechanical ascending devices, clove hitches and load releasing hitches, should all be treated like the prusik. The participant's weight can rest on the device, but not their safety. The participant's safety should always be backed up--at every point throughout every exercise--by an active belay or a figure eight on a bight, with minimal slack in the rope.
It is true that a good prusik, clove hitch or load releasing hitch is unlikely to slip, but it is best to protect yourself against such occurrences. Even more importantly, in an institutional setting you may have instructors doing belay escapes, rappel system lowers or other maneuvers with which they are not completely comfortable. As long as the basic rule of backing everything up with an active belay or a figure eight on a bight is followed, the more complex procedures can be accomplished without endangering the participant.
When performing such operations as the lowering of a participant from above, with a real belay, the instructor should back him or herself up with a prusik on the belaying side of the line.
C) A participant should always receive a complete, hands on, verbal harness and knot check immediately before beginning any climb, rappel, safety line travel, tether use, or other harness dependent activity.
The verbal component is comprised simply of the instructor explaining what they are checking as they check it. Each check should include the buckle, knots, tails on the harness buckle and knots, harness snugness, etc.. The verbalization forces the instructor maintain his or her focus on the task at hand; a day of climbing can involve a numbing, seemingly endless succession of harness checks. The verbal component of the check reassures other instructors that the procedure is occurring and reminds all of the participants to keep their own harnesses properly doubled back. The verbalized check can also help to prevent the "hands on" aspect of the harness check from becoming an intrusive surprise.
A single harness check at the beginning of the day is insufficient. Participants of all ages will loosen or alter their harnesses as they become uncomfortable or go off to relieve themselves. When people are distracted, nervous, or excited, they forget to put their harnesses on correctly. Sometimes participants are hesitant to admit that they do not completely remember how the harness is supposed to be worn (especially if the instructor has been emphatic about how important it is that everyone learn how to put on their harness correctly).
Harness checks are sometimes neglected at the point where participants connect themselves to a safety line as walking along a horizontal ledge as the activity may seem less dangerous. Harness checks are also frequently neglected towards the end of a day when instructors start to assume that the participants know what they are doing. Sometimes young instructors neglect doing complete harness checks for older participants in a misguided attempt to show respect.
NOTE: Some of the precautions mentioned in this manual are inappropriate for alpine guiding programs where speed is essential and security can sometimes be better attained through a reliance on competence rather than redundant back-ups. However, it is worth mentioning and considering that many of the additional safety procedures and back-ups described were developed by alpine guides to insure that they would not drop their clients when working in extreme weather conditions, moving quickly, or in the reasonable expectation of unpredictable complications.
All of the precautions mentioned are recommended for multi-pitch climbing with participants in a non-alpine setting. The exception is the multi-pitch rappelling with participants that might be necessary if you are doing multi-pitch climbing. When the instructor must descend first in order to set the next anchor, the students can be left above with their devices already clipped into the rappel ropes, but a top belay will be impossible and a bottom belay must suffice. Make sure your participants have had a chance to practice rappelling with a top belay before putting them to this situation.
There is much equipment which is inappropriate for institutional climbing, despite the fact that it has a high strength rating. There is equipment that is designed for alpine use, extreme rock climbing, caving, construction work, military and para-military work, etc.. Such equipment has the potential to wear out quickly or fail under common institutional uses and abuses.
Equipment is continually evolving. The institutional climber has a responsibility to keep up with the technology.
ROPES
Dynamic (stretchy) 11 millimeter climbing rope is standard for belaying use. Smaller diameter ropes should be reserved for non-institutional uses. A dry treated rope will last longer. Dry treated rope will also help during a long rainy season when climbing must continue or another session starts every day. Lengths of 165 feet are standard, but shorter lengths may be acceptable when working on shorter cliffs.
Ropes can be purchased from the manufacturer in spools and cut to length. Just be careful to leave enough extra length to deal with minor rescues. Additionally, most of the wear will be near the ends. Money will be saved if a few feet can be removed without reducing the rope to an unusable length.
Static (less stretchy) ropes are acceptable for rappelling lines, safety lines, anchor lines, and many non-belay rescue applications. Such ropes should also be eleven millimeter kernmantel, climbing specific ropes.
Ropes should be retired after four years, often less if used heavily or if showing signs of wear and deterioration. Many manufacturers recommend much earlier retirement. Read the manufacturer's literature and use your judgment. Any section of rope which is worn through the sheath, exposing the white core should be cut. As with all nylon products, ropes should be kept away from all chemicals, salt, excessive sunlight, etc.. While it is true that some chemicals do not damage nylon, the exact chemical composition of many common substances is often unknown, and its just not worth taking any risks. Ropes should not be stood upon. Tiny particles that are pushed into the rope will slowly cut the fibers as the rope is twisted and bent. Any rope that feels extremely stiff, loose or flat, rather than round and firm should be retired or cut at the weak spot. If there are any doubts, retire the rope.
WEBBING
Nylon webbing is a primary anchor material. One inch tubular webbing should be used exclusively. The type with the dense, smooth weave is preferable to the coarser, bumpy weave webbing. There are many narrower webbing types which should be avoided: they are not as strong or durable as one inch webbing.
WEBBING LIFE
Webbing should be accorded the same care as ropes. Webbing that is abraded, stiff or faded should be retired.
CARABINERS
Big, heavy duty locking carabiners are all that is needed unless multi-pitch climbing is a part of the program. In most situations locking carabiners offer greater security than non-locking ones. Locking steel carabiners are used by many organizations for their durability, especially when much safety line travel is necessary and the carabiners are dragged along the rock. Steel carabiners are also appropriate for use in sling-shotting as the high carabiners through which the rope runs.
CARABINER CARE
Keep the carabiners out of the dirt and away from salt and chemicals. Any carabiner which falls a significant distance may have sustained significant although invisible damage and should be retired. Steel is more resistant to general wear and tear, but it is more susceptible to impact fractures than aluminum. In addition, if a steel carabiner is dropped, it's greater mass has the potential to do a lot more damage if it hits someone than an aluminum one (not that being hit by an aluminum one would be pleasant). Carabiners which do not close properly can be treated with Tri-Flo or a similar lubricant. If lubricant is ineffective, the carabiner may be twisted, bent or have a worn out gate spring. Retire recalcitrant carabiners.
HELMETS
Helmets should be worn whenever a participant is in a position where they might slip and slam their head into rock (climbing, rappelling, bouldering, walking on hand lines, etc.) or where it is possible that something might drop from above. I have been amazed to see various institutional groups allowing their participants to climb without helmets. Climbers have died while only top roping or bouldering from head injuries sustained from an unexpected slip.
One of the instructors I was supervising once slipped while setting up a rappel. His tether kept him from falling to his death and his helmet prevented serious injury when his head slammed into the rock as he came down onto the full length of his tether. Having participants climb or stand in exposed areas without helmets is negligent.
The only helmets suitable for climbing are those which are designed for that purpose.
HELMET CARE
A helmet should be retired if it has sustained a serious blow or which has a crack all the way through its shell. Minor scratching of the enameled surface of a fiberglass helmet does not significantly weaken the helmet.
HARNESSES
It is possible to tie your own harnesses from one inch tubular webbing or two inch flat webbing. There are several sit harnesses designed for institutional use. Misty Mountain Threadworks offers a simple, universally adjustable and inexpensive institutional harness. Some harnesses are permanently sewn into the doubled back through the buckle position. These still require harness checks, but the possibility of error is reduced. Very heavy, round individuals require an additional chest harness in order to remain upright and to insure that they do not fall out of their harness if they should turn upside down. Some institutions use full body harnesses which combine sit and chest harnesses.
The type of belays required will depend on the program. Most programs require different devices for different purposes.